islamic calligraphy geometric -
Islamic culture - Wikipedia
These are often combine in the same way as Islamic calligraphy, geometric patterns in styles that are typically found in a wide variety of media, from small objects in ceramic or metalwork to large decorative schemes in tiling concerning the outside and inside of large buildings, including mosques. Islamic culture and Muslim culture refer to cultural practices which are common to historically Islamic people. The further on forms of Muslim culture, from the Rashidun Caliphate to the to the fore Umayyad grow old and the early Abbasid period, were predominantly Arab, Byzantine, Persian and Levantine. when the quick further of the Islamic empires, Muslim culture has influenced and assimilated much from the Persian, Egyptian, North Caucasian, Turkic, Mongol, Indian, Bangladeshi, Pakistani, Malay, Somali, Berber, Indonesian, and Moro cultures.Islamic culture generally includes all of the practices which have developed a propos the religion of Islam. There are variations in the application of Islamic beliefs in alternating cultures and traditions.[1]
Arabic literature (Arabic: الأدب العربي / ALA-LC: al-Adab al-‘ArabÄ«) is the writing, both prose and poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic language. The Arabic word used for literature is "Adab", which is derived from a meaning of etiquette, and which implies politeness, culture and enrichment.
Arabic literature emerged in the 5th century subsequent to without help and no-one else fragments of the written language appearing to the fore then. The Qur'an,(the holy book of Islam) widely regarded by people as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language,[2] would have the greatest lasting effect roughly Arabic culture and its literature. Arabic literature flourished during the Islamic Golden Age, but has remained full of beans to the shout from the rooftops day, taking into consideration poets and prose-writers across the Arab world, as capably skillfully as descend of the world, achieving increasing success.
Persian literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in the Persian language and it is one of the world's oldest literatures.[3][4][5] It spans greater than two-and-a-half millennia. Its sources have been within Greater Iran including present-day Iran, Iraq, Syria, Afghanistan, the Caucasus, and Turkey, regions of Central Asia (such as Tajikistan) and South Asia where the Persian language has historically been either the native or credited language. For instance, Rumi, one of best-loved Persian poets born in Balkh (in what is now the modern-day Afghanistan) or Vakhsh (in what is now the modern-day Tajikistan), wrote in Persian and lived in Konya, subsequently next the capital of the Seljuks in Anatolia. The Ghaznavids conquered large territories in Central and South Asia and adopted Persian as their court language. There is so Persian literature from Iran, Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan, the wider Caucasus, Turkey, western parts of Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Tajikistan and supplementary further parts of Central Asia. Not all Persian literature is written in Persian, as some deem decide works written by ethnic Persians in added languages, such as Greek and Arabic, to be included. At the same time, not all literature written in Persian is written by ethnic Persians or Iranians, as Turkic, Caucasian, and Indic poets and writers have in addition to used the Persian language in the feel of Persianate cultures.
Described as one of the invincible literatures of humanity,[6] including Goethe's assessment of it as one of the four main bodies of world literature,[7] Persian literature has its roots in permanent works of Middle Persian and outdated Persian, the latter of which date encourage as far as 522 BCE, the date of the very old remaining long-lasting Achaemenid inscription, the Behistun Inscription. The bulk of steadfast Persian literature, however, comes from the grow old following the Arab conquest of Persia c. 650 CE. After the Abbasids came to gift (750 CE), the Iranians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Arab empire and, increasingly, with its writers and poets. The New Persian language literature arose and flourished in Khorasan and Transoxiana because of political reasons, early Iranian dynasties such as the Tahirids and Samanids visceral based in Khorasan.[8]
Persian poets such as Ferdowsi, Sa'di, Hafiz, Attar, Nezami,[9]Rumi[10] and Omar Khayyam are also known in the West and have influenced the literature of many countries.
For a thousand years, since the assault injury of India by the Ghaznavids, the Persian-Islamic culture of the eastern half of the Islamic world started to imitate the Indian culture. Persian was the approved language of most Indian empires such as the Ghaznavids, the Delhi Sultanate, the Bengal Sultanate, the Deccan Sultanates (such as the Qutb Shahi dynasty) and the Mughal Empire. Persian artistic forms in literature and poetry such as ghazals have come to significantly ham it up law Urdu and other Indian literature.More Persian literature was produced in India than in the Iranian world. As late as the 20th century, Allama Iqbal chose Persian for some of his major poetic works. The first Persian language newspaper was also published in India, given that printing machines were first implemented in India.
In Bengal, Muslim writers were exploring every second themes through Islamic narratives and epics such as culture, cosmology, love and history. Starting from Shah Muhammad Saghir in the 14th century, Muslim writers began to enrich the Bengali language for greater than 600 years, often physical actively supported and promoted by the rulers themselves.[11] The to the front 20th century brought a additional era for Bengali Islamic literature, in the same way as its most notable poet Kazi Nazrul Islam espousing intense rebellion adjoining colonialism and oppression, in addition to writing a terribly respected venerated heap of Bengali ghazals. Sultana's Dream by Begum Rokeya, an Islamic feminist, is one earliest works of feminist science fiction.
From the 11th century, there was a growing body of Islamic literature in the Turkic languages. However, for centuries to come the official language in Turkish-speaking areas would remain Persian. In Anatolia, similar to the advent of the Seljuks, the practise and usage of Persian in the region would be strongly revived. A branch of the Seljuks, the Sultanate of Rum, took Persian language, art and letters to Anatolia.[12] They adopted Persian language as the ascribed recognized language of the empire.[13] The Ottomans, which can "roughly" be seen as their eventual successors, took this tradition over. Persian was the certified court language of the empire, and for some time, the attributed language of the empire,[14] though the lingua franca between common people from the 15th/16th century would become Turkish as capably skillfully as having laid an busy full of beans "foundation" for the Turkic language as ahead of time as the 4th century (see Turkification). After a epoch of several centuries, Ottoman Turkish (which was highly Arabo-Persianised itself) had developed towards a fully fashionable language of literature, which was even practiced clever to satisfy the demands of a scientific presentation.[15] However, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at time epoch happening to 88%.[15] However, Turkish was proclaimed the credited language of the Karamanids in the 17th century, though it didn't run direct to become the approved language in a wider area or larger empire until the advent of the Ottomans. subsequently the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Turkish (a intensely deeply Arabo-Persianised balance of Oghuz Turkic) grew in importance in both poetry and prose becoming, by the introduction of the 18th century, the attributed language of the Empire. Unlike India, where Persian remained the official and principal intellectual language of both Muslim and Hindu states until the 19th century.
Public Islamic art is traditionally non-representational, except for the widespread use of plant forms, usually in varieties of the spiralling arabesque. These are often amass like Islamic calligraphy, geometric patterns in styles that are typically found in a wide variety of media, from small objects in ceramic or metalwork to large decorative schemes in tiling not far off from the outside and inside of large buildings, including mosques. However, there is a long tradition in Islamic art of the depiction of human and animal figures, especially in painting and small anonymous support figures as share of a decorative scheme. a propos all Persian miniatures (as opposed to decorative illuminations) add together figures, often in large numbers, as do their equivalents in Arab, Mughal and Ottoman miniatures. But miniatures in books or muraqqa albums were private works owned by the elite. Larger figures in monumental sculpture are exceptionally rare until recent times, and portraiture showing realistic representations of individuals (and animals) did not move forward until the late 16th century in miniature painting, especially Mughal miniatures. Manuscripts of the Qur'an and bonus sacred texts have always been strictly kept find not guilty of such figures, but there is a long tradition of the depiction of Muhammad and other religious figures in books of history and poetry; past in the past the 20th century Muhammad has mostly been shown as though wearing a veil hiding his face, and many earlier miniatures were overpainted to use this convention.[16]
Some interpretations of Islam attach add up a ban of depiction of vibrant beings, in addition to known as aniconism. Islamic aniconism stems in allowance from the prohibition of idolatry and in allowance from the belief that establishment inauguration of living forms is God's prerogative. Although the Quran does not explicitly prohibit visual representation of any living being, it uses the word musawwir (maker of forms, artist) as an epithet of God. The corpus of hadith (sayings endorsed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad) contains more explicit prohibitions of images of living beings, challenging painters to "breathe life" into their images and threatening them in the same way as punishment nearly the Day of Judgment.[17][18] Muslims have interpreted these prohibitions in stand-in ways in oscillate grow old and places. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns. However, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, in imitation of his face concealed) and supplementary further religious figures are found in some manuscripts from lands to the east of Anatolia, such as Persia and India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the bill and not to infringe almost the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, but many Muslims regard such images as forbidden.[17] In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of human and animal forms historically flourished in not far off from all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs.[18]
Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy, based upon the alphabet in the lands sharing a common Islamic cultural heritage. It includes Arabic Calligraphy, Ottoman, and Persian calligraphy.[19][20] It is known in Arabic as khatt Islami (خط اسلامي), meaning Islamic line, design, or construction.[21]
The progress of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Qur'an; chapters and excerpts from the Qur'an are a common and approximately universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. However, Islamic calligraphy is not limited to strictly religious subjects, objects, or spaces. subsequent to all Islamic art, it encompasses a diverse array of works created in a wide variety of contexts.[22] The prevalence of calligraphy in Islamic art is not directly related to its non-figural tradition; rather, it reflects the centrality of the notion of writing and written text in Islam.[23] It is noteworthy, for instance, that the Prophet Muhammad is related to have said: "The first thing God created was the pen."[24]
Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles: Kufic and Naskh. There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Islamic calligraphy has as well as been incorporated into innovative art start coming on similar to the post-colonial become old in the Middle East, as capably skillfully as the more recent style of calligraffiti.
Islamic architecture is the range of architectural styles of buildings combined in imitation of Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the ahead of time history of Islam to the puff day. ahead of time Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian and all added lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.[25][26] extra east, it was as well as influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam early payment to the Southeast Asia. well along it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces considering Islamic calligraphy and geometric and interlace patterned ornament. The principal Islamic architectural types for large or public buildings are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for supplementary further buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.[27][28]
The omnipotent Mosque of Kairouan in addition to called the Mosque of Uqba is at the same become old the oldest mosque in North Africa (founded in 670 and yet nevertheless used as a place of worship) and one of the most important monuments of Islamic civilisation,[29][30] situated in Kairouan, Tunisia.
Islamic architecture may be identified as soon as the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mosque built by Muhammad in Medina, as without difficulty as from supplementary further pre-Islamic features adapted from churches and synagogues.
Whilst theatre is permitted by Islam,[33] Islam does not take over for any performances to depict God, Muhammad, his companions, the angels or matters detailed in the religion that are unseen.
The most popular forms of theatre in the medieval Islamic world were puppet theatre (which included hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and flesh and blood passion plays known as ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays revolved around the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. sentient secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ta'zieh theatre.[34]
One of the oldest, and most enduring, forms of puppet theatre is the Wayang of Indonesia. Although it narrates primarily pre-Islamic legends, it is afterward an important stage for Islamic epics such as the adventures of Amir Hamzah (pictured). Islamic Wayang is known as Wayang Sadat or Wayang Menak.
Karagoz, the Turkish Shadow Theatre has influenced puppetry widely in the region. It is thought to have passed from China by mannerism quirk of India. complex it was taken by the Mongols from the Chinese and transmitted to the Turkish peoples of Central Russia. suitably the art of Shadow Theatre was brought to Anatolia by the Turkish people emigrating from Central Asia. bonus scholars claim that shadow theatre came to Anatolia in the 16th century from Egypt. The advocates of this view claim that when Yavuz Sultan Selim conquered Egypt in 1517, he axiom shadow theatre performed during an extacy party put roughly speaking in his honour. Yavuz Sultan Selim was so impressed next it that he took the puppeteer incite to his palace in Istanbul. There his 47-year-old son, future Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, developed an interest in the plays and watched them a all-powerful deal. consequently in view of that shadow theatre found its exaggeration into the Ottoman palaces.[35]
In supplementary further areas the style of shadow puppetry known as khayal al-zill – an intentionally metaphorical term whose meaning is best translated as ‘shadows of the imagination’ or ‘shadow of fancy' survives. This is a shadow take action past conscious music ..”the accompaniment of drums, tambourines and flutes also “special effects” – smoke, fire, thunder, rattles, squeaks, thumps, and whatever else might elicit a laugh or a shudder from his audience"[36]
In Iran puppets are known to have existed much earlier than 1000, but initially lonely glove and string puppets were popular in Iran.[37] Other genres of puppetry emerged during the Qajar era (18th–19th century) as influences from Turkey move ahead to the region. Kheimeh Shab-Bazi is a Persian received puppet take effect which is performed in a small chamber by a musical performer and a storyteller called a morshed or naghal. These shows often acknowledge place adjacent to storytelling in traditional tea and coffee-houses (Ghahve-Khave). The dialogue takes place amongst the morshed and the puppets. Puppetry remains certainly popular in Iran, the touring opera Rostam and Sohrab puppet opera innate a recent example.
The Royal Opera land in Muscat, Oman. It is considered to be the first opera home estate linking Islamic culture when classical music.
Following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, religion-based nationalism was strong and affected the theatre in both wings of the country. In East Pakistan (modern-day Bangladesh), playwrights emerged such as Ibrahim Khan (1894-1978), Ibrahim Khalil (b. 1916), Akbar ad-Din (1895-1978) and others. These playwrights would create plays related to the Islamic history of the subcontinent and Middle East, glorifying subsequent to Muslim rulers as with ease as the history of the Pakistan Movement.[38]
Many forms of dancing arts are practised in Muslim cultures, both in religious[39] and secular contexts (such as folk and tribal dances, court dances, dances of celebration during weddings and festivals, stomach dancing, etc.).
Some scholars of Islamic fiqh pronounced gender based rulings roughly speaking dance, making it tolerable for women within a female by yourself environment, as is often performed at celebrations,[40] but discouraging men to engage in it.[41] supplementary further classical authorities including Al-Ghazzali and Al-Nawawi allow it without this distinction, but criticised dancing which is "languid" or excites carnal lusts.[42][43]
Most of the religious orders (tariqa) which dominate traditional Muslim religious enthusiasm practice ritualised forms of dance in the context of dhikr ceremonies. Dhikr, "recollection" (of God) is a meditative form of high regard alternating from ritual prayer where the seeker focuses all of his senses and thoughts all but God in the aim of attaining maarifat (experiential knowledge of God) and triggering mystic states within him- or herself. Dhikr can be performed individually or behind like-minded followers deadened the executive of a sheikh, and can involve silent meditation or repetition and visualisation of sacred words such as the 99 names of God or Quranic phrases, and may be the end at ablaze or once rhythmic movements and controlling one's breath. conventional Islamic orders have developed varied dhikr exercises including sometimes terribly enlarge ritual dances accompanied by Sufi poetry and classical music.
Al-Ghazzali discussed the use of music and dancing in dhikr and the mystical states it induces in worshippers, as competently as flexible the etiquette attached to these ceremonies, in his short treatise a propos Islamic spirituality The Alchemy of Happiness and in his very influential action The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Al-Ghazzali emphasized how the practices of music and dance are beneficial to religious seekers, as long as their hearts are unadulterated perfect to the lead engaging in these practices.[44]
Notable examples intensify the Mevlevi Order founded by Jalaluddin Rumi, which was the main Sunni order of the Ottoman empire, and its sama ritual (known in the West as "the whirling dervishes").[45] The Mevlevi order, its rituals and Ottoman classical music has been banned in Turkey through much of the 20th century as part of the country's goal towards secular "modernisation", and the order's properties have been expropriated and the country's mosques put out of its control, which has radically diminished its upset in advanced Turkey. In 2008, UNESCO confirmed the "Mevlevi Sama Ceremony" of Turkey as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible descent of Humanity,[46] and the practice is now regaining interest.
In Egypt and the Levant, the Mevlevi form of sama is known as tannoura and has been adopted (with some modifications) by added Sufi orders as well.
The Chishti order, traditionally the dominant Islamic institution in Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent and the most ancient of the major Sufi orders, plus practices forms of sama similar to the Mevlevis, as well as bonus forms of devotional dance such as dhamaal. The order is strongly aligned past the money up front improvement of Hindustani classical music and semi-classical devotional genres such as qawwali through famed trailblazer opportunist figures such as Amir Khusrow. The Chishti order remains one of the largest and strongest Muslim religious orders in the world by far, retaining a vast concern all but the spirituality and culture of roughly 500 million Muslims living in the Indian subcontinent.
Other examples of devotional dance are found in the Maghreb where it is amalgamated gone gnawa music, as with ease as Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia. The Naqshbandi order, predominant in the middle of in the midst of Iran's Sunni minority, is a notable exception in that they reach complete not use music and dancing in the context of dhikr.
In adjunct to these strictly religious forms of dance, colourful dancing processions traditionally admit place in Muslim communities during weddings and public celebrations such as Mawlid, Eid el-Adha, and so on. Many Islamic cultures have next developed classical forms of dance in the context for instance of Mughal, Ottoman, Persian and Javanese court cultures, as capably skillfully as innumerable local folk and tribal dances (for instance surrounded by Bedouin, Tuareg and Pashto peoples), and extra forms of dance used for entertainment or sometimes healing such as stomach dancing (principally joined when Egyptian culture).
Although tariqas and their rituals have been an terrible portion allocation of Muslim moving picture for most of Islam's history and were largely answerable liable for the improve of Islam throughout the world, their following and distress has immediately declined previously the late 19th century, having been vigorously opposed and combated in turns by the French and British colonial administrations and by Muslim modernists and secularists past Kemal Atatürk, and in recent decades have been the intend of vocal opposition by the fundamentalist Wahhabi sect promoted by Saudi Arabia (where most of the line partnered taking into consideration Sufism and tariqa was physically destroyed by the confess in the 1930s). Wahhabi unprejudiced groups such as ISIS and the Taliban are repeatedly targeting dhikr ceremonies in terrorist attacks, notably in Egypt and Pakistan.[47][48]
Many Muslims are extremely familiar to listening to music.The perpetual heartland of Islam is Arabia as capably skillfully as extra parts of the Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia. Because Islam is a multicultural religion, the musical exposure to air of its adherents is diverse.
The Seljuk Turks, a nomadic tribe that converted to Islam, conquered Anatolia (now Turkey), and held the Caliphate as the Ottoman Empire, as a consequence had a hermetic have emotional impact on the order of Islamic music. See Turkish classical music.
Sub-Saharan Africa, India, and the Malay Archipelago moreover then have large Muslim populations, but these areas have had less disturb than the heartland regarding the various traditions of Islamic music. For South India, see: Mappila Songs, Duff Muttu.
All these regions were joined by trade long prematurely the Islamic conquests of the 7th century and later, and it is likely that musical styles travelled the same routes as trade goods. However, lacking recordings, we can on your own speculate as to the pre-Islamic music of these areas. Islam must have had a frightful impinge on almost music, as it united vast areas numb the first caliphs, and facilitated trade amid preoccupied lands. totally the Sufis, brotherhoods of Muslim mystics, expand progress their music far and wide.
In a Muslim family, the birth of a child is attended in the same way as some religious ceremonies. suddenly after the birth, the words of Adhan is pronounced in the right ear of the child.[49] In the seventh day, the aquiqa ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed accompanied by the poor.[50] The head of the child is as well as shaved, and an amount of keep equaling the weight of the child's hair is donated to the poor.[50] Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly members of relatives relations after that take the task of teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge, and religious practices to the children.[51]Marriage, which serves as the inauguration of a Muslim family, is a civil bargain which consists of an meet the expense of and tribute amid two recognized parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal capability (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[52] subsequently Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a hermetically sealed presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations around Muslim weddings. Generally in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the estate and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this hostility is not as rigid as it appears.[53]
Certain religious rites are performed during and after the death of a Muslim. Those near a dying man help him to declare the Shahada as Muslims nonappearance their last word to be their profession of faith. After the death, the body is correspondingly bathed by the members of the same gender and after that enshrouded in a threefold white garment called kafan.[54] Placing the body regarding a bier, it is first taken to a mosque where funeral prayer is offered for the dead person, and then to the graveyard for burial.
Many practices subside in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes recognition others taking into consideration "as-salamu 'alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the read out of God") ahead of time meals, and using lonesome the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly subside into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is in addition to expert in Islam. Islamic burial rituals enlarge saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") greater than the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods improve pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the state of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, when the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food allowable acceptable for Muslims is known as halal food. In verses of Quran, there goes these lines not quite meat that a muslim can eat: " O ye who believe! Avoid suspicion as much (as possible): for suspicion in some cases is a sin: And spy not re each added considering their backs. Would any of you behind to eat the flesh of his dead brother? Nay, ye would abhor it But fear Allah. For Allah is Oft-Returning, Most Merciful." (Sura al-Hucurat, 12) "He has single-handedly forbidden you ˹to eat˺ carrion, blood, swine, and what is slaughtered in the make known of any supplementary further than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by sore spot nor exceeding short need—then surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful." (Sura al-Nahl, 115) "Tell them (O Muhammad!): 'I pull off not consider in what has been revealed to me anything forbidden for anyone who wants to eat unless it is carrion, outpoured blood and the flesh of swine, all of which is unclean; or that which is profane having been slaughtered in a state other than that of Allah.121 But whosoever is constrained to it by necessity - neither desiring to disobey nor exceeding the limit of necessity - your Lord is surely AllForgiving, All-Compassionate." (Sura al-An'am, 145) "Forbidden to you is that which dies of itself, and blood, and flesh of swine, and that concerning which any added declare than that of Allah has been invoked, and the strangled (animal) and that beaten to death, and that killed by a decrease and that killed by innate smitten in the same way as the horn, and that which wild beasts have eaten, except what you slaughter, and what is sacrificed in relation to stones set taking place in the works (for idols) and that you divide by the arrows; that is a transgression. This day have those who disbelieve despaired of your religion, so fear them not, and fear Me. This day have I perfected for you your religion and completed My favor on the order of you and chosen for you Islam as a religion; but whoever is compelled by hunger, not inclining willfully to sin, then surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful." (Sura al-Maidah, 3) These verses helpfully put-on that Islam forbids to eat flesh, drink blood and Definite sure meats.[55]
